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  • PYQs (GS & Optional)
  • (a) Structure and function of cell and its organelles (nucleus, plasma membrane, mitochondria, Golgi bodies, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, and lysosomes), cell division (mitosis and meiosis), mitotic spindle and mitotic apparatus, chromosome movements, chromosome type polytene and lambrush, organization of chromatin, heterochromatin, Cell cycle regulation.

    • Structure and Function of Cell and Its Organelles:
      • Explain the isolation and methodology of study of the cell membrane.
      • Explain the biochemical composition of cell membrane.
      • Give an account of the structure and functions of the organelles considered unusual in the cell cytoplasm.
      • Describe the structural organisation of a prokaryotic cell. What are the traits and functions in which it differs from a eukaryotic cell?
      • Describe the chemical and molecular organization of cell membrane. Discuss transport of specific molecules across the cell membrane.
      • Explain the biochemical mechanism of conservation and release of energy in a cell.
      • Which organelle is well developed in a secretory cell? Describe the structure of justify its function.
      • Calcium is an initiator of cortical granules reaction. Explain.
    • Cell Nucleus
    • Plasma Membrane
      • Explain the mechanism of transport of small and large molecules across plasma membrane.
      • Describe the structure and functions of plasma membrane in cell.
      • Explain the following about plasma membrane structure: (i) Fluidity of the membrane, (ii) Functions of the membrane proteins, (iii) Selective permeability
      • Explain the transport of large molecules across the plasma membrane.
      • Illustrate fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane and explain the mechanism of active transport through the membrane.
      • Mechanisms for elaboration of secretory and plasma membrane glycoproteins.
      • Describe the structure and functions of plasma membrane and Endoplasmic reticulum.
      • Explain the mechanism of transport of small and large molecules across plasma membrane.
      • Explain the mechanism of transport of small and large molecules across plasma membrane.
      • What is protein targetting? Illustrate the same with reference to transport of proteins to plasma membrane.
      • Describe the structure and functions of plasma membrane in cell.
      • Describe the structure of plasma membrane according to the fluid mosaic model with emphasis on the role of lipid molecules in maintaining the fluidity of the membrane.
      • Explain the following about plasma membrane structure: (i) Fluidity of the membrane (ii) Functions of the membrane proteins (iii) Selective permeability
      • Draw an ultrastructure of plasma membrane. Discuss the roles of lipids in the regulation of membrane fluidity.
      • Explain the transport of large molecules across the plasma membrane.
      • Glycoproteins are asymmetrically distributed in a plasma membrane, explain. Give an overview of membrane function.
      • What is facilitated diffusion? Describe the mechanism of active transport across the plasma membrane with suitable example.
      • Illustrate fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane and explain the mechanism of active transport through the membrane.
    • Mitochondria
      • Describe detailed structure and functions of Mitochondria.
      • Compare the function of mitochondrial and lysosomal enzymes in cellular metabolism.
      • Illustrate and narrate structure of F₁F₀ particles of mitochondria. How do they facilitate movement of protons across the mitochondrial membrane leading to ATP generation?
      • Give evidence in favour of mitochondrial theory of aging. What are its limitations?
      • Illustrate and narrate structure of F₁F₀ particles of mitochondria. How do they facilitate movement of protons across the mitochondrial membrane leading to ATP generation?
      • Give evidence in favour of mitochondrial theory of aging. What are its limitations?
      • Structure and functions of mitochondria.
      • Explain the structure of mitochondrion. Why is it known as powerhouse of the cell?
    • Golgi Bodies
      • Lysosome and Golgi bodies.
      • Discuss the structure and functions of Ribosomes and Golgi bodies with an emphasis on secretion of proteins.
      • Explain in detail the structural organization and functions of Golgi-Complex.
      • Functions of Golgi complex.
    • Endoplasmic Reticulum
      • Explain the process of protein glycosylation in the lumen of rough endoplasmic reticulum.
      • Enumerate a comparative account of different functions of smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum.
      • Explain the role of endoplasmic reticulum in lipid biosynthesis.
      • Give an illustrated account of protein synthesis in eukaryotic cell. Compare this with similar events in a prokaryotic. Add a note on the mechanisms that lead to migration of such proteins in the lumen of endoplasmic reticulum.
      • What is rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)? Describe in detail the various modifications of secretory proteins occurring in the lumen of RER.
      • Cisternae of Golgi complex and that of endoplasmic reticulum.
      • Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
      • Describe the structure and functions of endoplasmic reticulum.
      • Give an illustrated account of protein synthesis in eukaryotic cell. Compare this with similar events in a prokaryotic. Add a note on the mechanisms that lead to migration of such proteins in the lumen of endoplasmic reticulum.
      • Give an illustrated account of protein synthesis in eukaryotic cell. Compare this with similar events in a prokaryotic. Add a note on the mechanisms that lead to migration of such proteins in the lumen of endoplasmic reticulum.
      • Enumerate a comparative account of different functions of smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum.
      • Enumerate a comparative account of different functions of smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum.
      • Explain the role of endoplasmic reticulum in lipid biosynthesis.
      • Explain the process of protein glycosylation in the lumen of rough endoplasmic reticulum.
      • Give an account of ultrastructure of rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum. Also discuss the role of endoplasmic reticulum in cell secretion.
    • Ribosomes
      • Describe the Structure and functions of ribosomes.
      • Compare the structure and function of ‘30s and 70s ribosomes.
      • What is protein synthesis? Discuss the role of messenger RNA and ribosomes in protein synthesis.
      • Describe the composition of prokaryotic ribosomes and illustrate sequential assemblies of 30S and 50S subunits during the formation of translation initiation complex.
      • Discuss the structure and functions of Ribosomes and Golgi bodies with an emphasis on secretion of proteins.
    • Lysosomes
      • What are lysosomal enzymes? Explain their origin, structure and functions.
      • Lysosomes
      • Give an account of structure and role of Lysosomes.
      • Explain the origin and functions of lysosomes with emphasis on different enzymes.
      • What are lysosomes? Discuss their role in intracellular digestion. Give an example of lysosomal storage disorder.
      • “Lysosomes are the suicidal bags of the cell.” Justify.
      • Lysosomes are polymorphic, justify, draw a diagram representing the dynamic aspect of lysosome system. Write down the functions of lysosomes.
      • Explain the structure and functions of lysosome.
      • What are “suicide bags” of cells? Briefly describe their structure and function.
    • Cell Division (Mitosis and Meiosis)
      • What is mitotic cell cycle? How does it differ from meiotic cell cycle? Add a note on their molecular regulation.
      • Compare the events during mitotic and meiotic cell cycles. Add a note on role of stage-specific macromolecules and enzymes in such cycles.
      • Compare the events during mitotic and meiotic cell cycles. Add a note on role of stage-specific macromolecules and enzymes in such cycles.
      • Draw the structure of a microtubule and explain its role in chromosomal movements during cell division.
      • Diagrammatically describe prophase stages and differentiate between anaphase I and II of meiotic cell division.
      • Describe various stages of prophase of meiosis-I in an animal cell.
    • Cell Division (Mitotic Spindle and Mitotic Apparatus)
      • What is mitotic apparatus? Describe its structure and its role during cell division.
      • Describe the structure of the mitotic spindle and the role of different types of fibres in chromosome movement.
      • Describe the structure of the mitotic spindle and the role of different types of fibres in chromosome movement.
      • Draw the structure of a microtubule and explain its role in chromosomal movements during cell division.
      • Diagrammatically describe prophase stages and differentiate between anaphase I and II of meiotic cell division.
      • Describe various stages of prophase of meiosis-I in an animal cell.
    • Cell Division (Chromosome Movements)
      • Describe the role of microtubules in chromosome movement during cell division.
      • Describe the role of microtubules in chromosome movement during cell division.
      • Describe the structure of the mitotic spindle and the role of different types of fibres in chromosome movement.
      • Describe the structure of the mitotic spindle and the role of different types of fibres in chromosome movement.
      • Explain molecular mechanism of chromosome movements in eukaryotes.
      • Define endomitosis. Describe in detail the structure of a polytene chromosome highlighting the importance of puffs.
      • What is an artificial chromosome vector? Give its application.
      • What is chromosome mutation? Describe various types of polyploidy with suitable examples. Add a note on phenotypic effects of polyploidy.
      • What is chromosome theory of linkage? Describe the methods for determination of linkage using suitable examples.
      • Draw the structure of a microtubule and explain its role in chromosomal movements during cell division.
      • Diagrammatically describe prophase stages and differentiate between anaphase I and II of meiotic cell division.
      • Describe various stages of prophase of meiosis-I in an animal cell.
    • Chromosome Types (Polytene Chromosomes, Lampbrush Chromosomes)
      • Differentiate between polytene and lampbrush chromosomes on the basis of their structure and functions.
      • What is meant by a ‘Lamp brush' chromosome? Explain its structure and functional significance.
      • Delineate the structural and functional characteristics of polytene chromosome.
      • What are giant chromosomes? Name them. State their locations and illustrate their structures. How do they function?
      • What are giant chromosomes? Name them. State their locations and illustrate their structures. How do they function?
      • Types of chromosomal aberrations.
      • Polytene chromosome.
    • Organization of Chromatin
      • Explain in detail how a DNA molecule gets organized into a chromosome?
      • What is nucleosome? Explain the functional elements of eukaryotic chromosomes.
    • Organization of Heterochromatin
      • What are Euchromatin and Heterochromatin? Explain the events of Heterochromatin formation.
      • Distinguish between heterochromatin and euchromatin in their structure and function with examples.
      • Explain in detail how a DNA molecule gets organized into a chromosome?
      • What is a nucleosome? Explain the functional elements of eukaryotic chromosomes.
    • Cell Cycle Regulation
      • Cellular regeneration.
      • Cell cycle and its regulation.
      • Explain that cell cycle is fully based on molecular events.
      • What are Rb and proteins? How do they regulate the cell cycle? How do they protect the cell from carcinogenesis?
      • What are Rb and P53 proteins? How do they regulate the cell cycle? How do they protect the cell from carcinogenesis?
      • Describe the role of protein kinases in the regulation of cell cycle. Add a note on the importance of check points.
      • Draw an overview of eukaryotic cell cycle. Describe the roles of cyclins in the regulation of cell cycle.
      • What is cell cycle? Draw an overview of molecular events during cell cycle. Discuss the role of protein kinases in the regulation of meiotic cell cycle.
    • Misc
      • Food Web.
      • Ozone layer and its importance.
      • Ozone layer depletion.
      • What are the possible consequences of ozone layer depletion?
      • What is the ozone layer? Describe the mechanism of degradation of the ozone layer and its impact.
      • What is ozone layer? Describe the mechanism of degradation of the ozone layer and its impact.
      • Describe the carbon cycle and discuss its peculiarities. How do human activities interfere with the carbon cycle?
      • The ozone layer and its impact.
      • Global warming, its causes, and effects.
      • Suitable examples describe the biotic factors that influence intra- and interspecific relations.
      • Draw a flow diagram of the nitrogen cycle and give accounts of nitrogen fixation, nitrification, and denitrification.
      • Give the mechanism of ozone degradation by chlorofluorocarbons.
      • Draw diagrams to differentiate between ecological pyramids based on predator-prey relationship and energy flow in an ecological niche.
      • Write note on ecological pyramids with suitable examples.
      • Ecological niche.
      • What is Integrated Pest Management? Describe the different strategies of integrated pest management employed in agriculture.
      • Define ecosystem. Discuss the structure and functions of ecosystem.
      • Discuss environmental degradation with regards to inland water resources. Suggest measures to restore the water quality of our rivers, lakes, and reservoirs.
      • Elaborate the term 'Ecosystem' and explain its structural components with examples. Comment on Trophic Dynamics concept.
      • What is Ganga action plan? Explain.
      • Give an account of causes and consequences of pollution of aquatic resources and the problem of cultural eutrophication. Suggest measures for the abatement of water degradation.
      • Distinguish between a dominant and keystone species. Add a note on the crucial role played by the keystone species on the community structure and structure of a food web.
      • Define ecosystem. Discuss the dynamic of the ecosystem and the factors influencing it.
      • Explicate the 'Nitrogen Cycle' and comment on its importance in the ecosystem?
      • Aquatic ecosystem
      • Trophic levels.
      • Trophic levels.
      • What is meant by the population? Describe various characteristics of a population. Discuss the phenomenon of stabilization of populations.
      • “A population is a self-regulating system.” (Wynne Edwards). Explain.
      • What is meant by distribution? Explain patterns of distribution in natural populations.
      • What is meant by distribution? Explain patterns of distribution in natural populations.
      • “A population is a self-regulating system.” Justify.
      • What is population growth? Delineate different factors affecting population growth. Distinguish between “J” shaped and “S” shaped growth curve with examples.
      • Differentiate between population dispersal and population dispersion.
      • Define population. Explain the characteristics of a population.
      • Describe various means which result in change in gene frequencies in a population.
      • Distinguish between founder effect and bottleneck effect. How do these forces affect gene frequency of a large population?
      • Distinguish between a dominant and keystone species. Add a note on the crucial role played by the keystone species on the community structure and structure of a food web.
      • What are various biological resources? Discuss in detail the efforts made and present status of conservation of biological resources in India.
      • Write an account of the mission "Project Tiger" and mention the conservation strategies.
      • What is Project Tiger? Discuss the various threats and conservation strategies to protect tigers in India.
      • What are Euphenics? Explain its use for the improvement of human welfare.
      • Distinguish between in situ and ex situ conservation of animals. Provide suitable examples.
      • Discuss the role of molecular taxonomy in coding of biodiversity.
      • What is taxonomic hierarchy? Explain biodiversity on the basis of molecular taxonomy using suitable examples.
      • Red Data Book.
      • What is ‘Ganga action plan’? Explain.
      • What is the ozone layer? Describe the mechanism of degradation of the ozone layer and its impact.
      • Discuss briefly the degradation of terrestrial ecosystems by human activities.
      • Ozone layer, its destruction, and effects.
      • Describe the rapidly acting synaptic transmitters with suitable examples.
      • Define ‘insight’. Explain this behavior using the example of Chimpanzees.
      • How do animals navigate in the dark? Use owl and chiropterans as examples and highlight the features of their navigational sensory equipment.
      • How do animals perceive mechanical and olfactory stimuli from the environment? Explain.
      • Explain Aggressive and Territorial behaviour in animals, with suitable examples.
      • Describe the Predator-Prey relationship with suitable examples.
      • Describe the Predator-Prey relationship with suitable examples.
      • With suitable example describe the neuro-endocrine control of behaviors.
      • Indian major carps and Exotic carps
      • What are the different criteria for the selection of candidate species for aquaculture?
      • Through a labelled diagram, show the stages of the life-history of Bombyx mori.
      • Beneficial insects.
      • Induced breeding.
      • Induced breeding for major carps.
      • Culture of freshwater prawns.
      • Elaborate on the structural organization of compound eye in prawn.
      • What are the major carps of India? Describe the polyculture methods of rearing the major carps.
      • Amniocentesis
      • Define a pest. Describe the life cycle of Pyrilla perpusilla. Add notes on the damage caused by it and its control measures.
      • Define a pest. Describe the life cycle of Pyrilla perpusiella. Add notes on the damage caused by it and its control measures.
      • Describe the life history and pathogenicity of Pyrilla perpusilla. Note on its preventive measures.
      • Write scientific names of any three pests of stored grains and describe the nature of damage and management of Sitophilus oryzae.
      • Account for the damage caused by two major insect pests for each of the paddy and stored cereals, with a note on the bionomics and control measures of the pests.
      • Mean and Mode
      • Natality and Mortality
      • Lotka-Volterra model
      • Give an account of “Analysis of variance” and mention its significance.
      • Describe the principle and application of ANOVA.
      • Give an account of "Analysis of variance" and mention its significance.
      • Standard deviation, standard error, and methods of sampling.
      • Explain the arithmetic mean. Calculate arithmetic mean of classified data with an example.
      • Give an account of "Analysis of variance" and mention its significance.
      • Describe the principle, working mechanism and applications of Geiger Muller counter.
      • Describe the principle, working and applications of Scintillation counter.
      • Insect vision.
      • Describe the principle and working of a Geiger-Muller counter and its use in Biology.
      • Electrophoresis is a valuable tool in resolving cryptic-species complexes. Discuss.
      • Electrophoresis is a valuable tool in resolving cryptic-species complexes. Discuss.
      • Describe the principle, structure and function of Liquid scintillation counter and mention its application.
      • Describe the principle, structure, and function of the Liquid scintillation counter and mention its application.
      • Explain the principle, working, and applications of the Geiger-Muller counter.
      • While using a compound microscope, how will you know how much you are magnifying an object? Through a distance under low and high powers. (150 words)
      • Describe the principle and working of a flame photometer.
      • Illustrate the organisation of electron transport particles on the inner mitochondrial membrane and explain their role in ATP synthesis.
      • Describe in detail about the respiratory chain or electron transport during oxidative phosphorylation in Mitochondria.
      • Explain with the help of diagrams, how the transport of electrons through the four complexes of the respiratory chain in mitochondria leads to the formation of a proton gradient and ATP synthesis.
      • Give schematic representation of electron transport chain. Describe the energy coupling mechanism in oxidative phosphorylation using chemiosmotic model.
      • Difference between male heterogamety and female heterogamety with examples.
      • Explain how the biological energy transformations obey the laws of thermodynamics.
      • What is Hox gene? Give the properties of Hox Gene and its cluster. What role do they play in humans?
      • What is DNA fingerprinting? Explain the principles and applications of DNA fingerprinting.
      • Describe the principle, procedure and applications of DNA fingerprinting.
      • Explain the following: (i) Principle of DNA fingerprinting
      • Explain the following: (ii) Michaelis-Menten kinetic pattern of an enzymatic reaction
      • What do you mean by a genetic clone? Describe a protocol of cloning of a recombinant DNA.
      • Explain the use of minisatellite DNA in the process of DNA fingerprinting.
      • Intraspecific relations.
      • Enumerate the selection pressures that led to bipedal locomotion in hominids.
      • Haeckel propounded the concept (law), “Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny”. Give evidence and examples that negate it or favor it.
      • Haeckel propounded the concept (law), “Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny”. Give evidence and examples that negate it or favor it.
      • Fossil reptiles and their evolutionary significance.
      • Write an essay on the fossil records of amphibians to explain their origin and evolution.
      • Eohippus and Parahippus.
      • Dating of fossils.
      • Identify the five important evolutionary changes that led to the evolution of modern Homo sapiens from the ancestral stock during various Geological eras and epochs.
      • What are fossils? Describe the process of fossil formation and give two methods of determining the age of fossils.
      • Write an account of the methods of determination of the age of fossils.
      • How are fossils formed? Describe the methods of dating of fossils.
      • Affinities of Balanoglossus.
      • Describe the traditional methods of classification of animals.
      • Discuss the laws of thermodynamics and their applications in biological systems.
      • Describe the use of molecular techniques in animal taxonomy.
      • Describe different types of vectors.
      • What is ICZN? Explain the principle, scope, and limitations in the presentday scenario of nomenclature.
      • What is I.V.F.? Make a flow chart of steps in I.V.F. Add a note on its applications.
      • What is I.V.F.? Make a flow chart of steps in I.V.F. Add a note on its applications.
      • Species and Subspecies.
      • Genera and Species.
      • Binomial system of classification.
      • Methods of zoological classification.
      • Chemotaxonomy and cytotaxonomy.
      • Chemotaxonomy.
      • Affinities and systematic position of Balanoglossus.
      • Write the systematic position of an oilseed pest. Give an account of its life cycle and the damage caused by this pest. Write a note on its control measures.
      • Describe the mechanism of synthesis of protein and steroid hormones. How do they affect cellular activity.
      • What are gap junction proteins? Discuss the roles of connexins in cellular interaction.
      • Peroxysome and Glyoxysome.
      • Neurohormones and Neurohumors.
      • ACTH.
      • Draw welllabelled diagrams of transverse sections of mammalian testis and ovary. Describe the functions of male and female sex hormones (Testosterone and Estrogen).
      • Compare the functions of prostaglandins and histamine. Give reasons for their being considered as hormones.
      • Describe the functional anatomy of neuroendocrine interrelationship in mammalian hypophysis. Name hypothalamic and hypophyseal hormones in the tabular form showing their functional relationship. With the help of the diagram only, explain feedback mechanism in the HPG axis.
      • Give the structural formula of an amino acid and show how a peptide bond formation occurs. Also explain how amino acids differ from each other.
      • Give the structural formula of an amino acid and show how a peptide bond formation occurs. Also explain how amino acids differ from each other.
      • Explain the neuroendocrine regulation of insect metamorphosis with suitable illustrations. Comment on the role of JH (Juvenile Hormone) in insect metamorphosis.
      • Define Apoptosis. Explain its mechanism with suitable example.
      • Give an account of chemical nature and function of Neurohypophyseal hormones in mammals.
      • Illustrate the structure of a dipeptide and mention the characteristics of the peptide bond.
      • What is thermoregulation? How do homeothermic animals sustain by maintaining their body temperature in harsh climatic condition?
      • With the help of a welllabelled diagram (ventral aspect), describe the heart of rabbit showing major blood vessels. Add a note on the mechanism of circulation through the heart.
      • What controls heartbeat, and the rate at which blood flows through the circulatory system?
      • How does the structure of antibody give its specificity of functions? Add a note on the causes of allergic reaction.
      • Mention the different steps in the metabolism of iron. What are the functions that require iron? Add a note on the regulatory mechanism that ensure stable titers of iron in the body.
      • Explain ABO blood groups with its genetic basis and significance in blood transfusion.
      • Elucidate the importance of thermoregulation with reference to its relationship with homeostasis in endothermic animals.
      • Elucidate the importance of thermoregulation with reference to its relationship with homeostasis in endothermic animals.
      • Give a comprehensive account of gaseous transport in blood.
      • Genetic basis of ABO blood group system.
      • Describe the role of Calcitonin, Parathormone and Vitamin D3, in calcium metabolism.
      • Explain the extrinsic pathway for initiation of blood clotting.
      • Describe the genetics of ABO human blood groups. Can a man of blood group B be the father of the child of a woman of blood group A? The blood group of the child is O. Explain the genotypes.
      • Give a diagrammatic representation of citric acid cycle and discuss its role in metabolism.
      • Define thermoregulation. How do homeotherms regulate body temperature in hot and cold climates?
      • (i) Explain ATP utilizing reactions of glycolytic pathway.
      • (ii) Write NADH and FADH, producing reactions of Krebs cycle.
      • ABO system of blood groups and its basis, and erythroblastosis foetalis.
      • Chloride shift
      • What are erythroid cells? Explain the RBC lineage in balancing haemoglobin manufacture.
      • Draw a welllabelled schematic diagram of the feeding current through the gut of Branchiostoma, and comment on the mechanism of feeding and digestion.
      • Henley's loop.
      • On your answerbook, write down the name of each of the ganglia marked (i) to (vii) in the diagram below on the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions of autonomic nervous system: parasympathetic sympathetic Nervous system; Nervous System. How do they regulate the visceral and reflex functions of the body?
      • Discuss the mechanism involved in the survival of estuarine animals in varying salinities.
      • Explain the role of ADH and juxtaglomerular complex in the regulation of kidney function.
      • Illustrate the countercurrent mechanism by vasa recta and mention its physiological importance.
      • Explain the counter current mechanism operating at vasa recta and its role in urine formation.
      • With suitable examples, compare the chemical structure and functions of acetylcholine (in adrenergic neuron) and serotonin / 5hydroxytryptamine / γamino butyric acid (in peptidergic neurons).
      • What do you understand by osmoregulation? Describe the phenomenon and physiology of urine formation.
      • What is hypothalamopituitary axis? Draw a welllabelled diagram of pituitary gland and describe the functions of its hormones.
      • Capacitation and Acrosome reaction.
      • Organogenesis in the frog embryo.
      • Comparison of alimentary canal of frog and rabbit.
      • Draw well labelled diagrams only of male urinogenital system of Labeo and frog.
      • Describe the role of neuroendocrine factors and Sertoli cell secretions on spermatogenic functions of human seminiferous tubules.
      • Describe hyoid apparatus in Frog or Necturus.
      • What are the stages of the development of animals? How is it done?
      • Explain in detail about the events involved in the transformation of spermatid into sperm. Comment on why you consider these changes as essential.
      • Describe the process of metamorphosis in frogs and explain the role of thyroxin.
      • Illustrate the process of development during gastrulation in a chick embryo.
      • Describe with welllabelled diagram, the stages involved in Meiotic prophase.
      • What is primordial germ cell? With the help of suitable diagram, discuss the process of oogenesis.
      • Competence in embryology.
      • Regeneration and Neoplasia.
      • Regeneration.
      • Regeneration.
      • What is embryonic induction? Describe the mechanism of induction giving examples.
      • Describe the mechanism of embryonic induction giving examples.
      • Give a schematic representation of differentiation of sexual phenotypes during early embryonic development in mammals.
      • Explain the functions of mammalian integument.
      • Role of mosquitoes as vectors of human diseases.
      • Give an account of gastrointestinal nematodes of cattle and briefly discuss their pathogenicity.
      • Explain various measures implemented by the government to manage vehicular pollution in India.
      • List various population characteristics. Explain Jshaped and Sshaped growth forms with suitable examples.
      • Differentiate between inner and outer mitochondrial membrane.
      • Explain different steps in the activation of receptor protein tyrosine kinase with diagrams.
      • Give a brief account of evolution of man in Pleistocene period.
      • How does glucagon regulate the glycogen metabolism?
      • Using R groups properties, classify amino acids.
      • Describe the structure and functions of antibody isotypes with diagrams.
      • What is regeneration? Describe regenerative ability in hydra, planaria and urodele amphibians.
  1. PYQs and Practice Questions
  2. UPSC Optionals
  3. Zoology Optional
  4. Cell Biology
  5. (a) Structure and function of cell and its organelles (nucleus, plasma membrane, mitochondria, Golgi bodies, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, and lysosomes), cell division (mitosis and meiosis), mitotic spindle and mitotic apparatus, chromosome movements, chromosome type polytene and lambrush, organization of chromatin, heterochromatin, Cell cycle regulation.
  6. Endoplasmic Reticulum

Enumerate a comparative account of different functions of smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum. (UPSC 2016, 10 Marks, )

  1. Posted by: Synopsis IAS
  2. Posted on:31 July 2025
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समान और खुरदरे एंडोप्लाज्मिक रेटिकुलम के विभिन्न कार्यों का तुलनात्मक विवरण दें। (Enumerate a comparative account of different functions of smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum.)
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